Principles Of Engineering Mechanisms Unit Test Answers

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    They calculate whether or not a boat or balloon will float, and calculate the volume needed to make a balloon or boat of a certain mass float. High School Lesson Pre-Req Knowledge An understanding of basic algebra is required in order to solve and...

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    These types of engineers are responsible for water transport systems and sewage networks in urbanized areas as well as the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals, levees and pipe networks, both free-standing and in buildings. The basic concepts...

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    All of us have experienced Archimedes' principle, even though we may not be aware of it. A common experience is realizing that it is rather easy to lift a person in a swimming pool. This is because the water provides partial support in the form of an upward force called the buoyant force. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Ships float in water because the weight of the water displaced by the ship's hull is greater than the ship's weight, and if the weight of the water displaced was less than that of the ship, it would sink. Engineers use fluid mechanics and dynamics modeling software to simulate different phenomena that occur, which is essential to create optimal ship designs.

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    Engineers model hull form and appendage optimization to increase a ship's efficiency and propulsive power, reduce fuel consumption, and analyze resistance in calm water and irregular waves. Earlier, it was mentioned that a fluid can be a liquid or a gas. Air is everywhere, and even the air surrounding us has a weight and exerts a pressure. We do not realize how heavy the air is, or feel the pressure it exerts upon us because we are accustomed to the "atmospheric pressure. Pascal's law states that a pressure applied to a fluid in a closed container is transmitted equally to every point of the fluid and the walls of the container, as seen in Equation 2.

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    Note that a closed system may have two areas, so the force is different at the two locations, but the pressure remains the same, as stated by Pascal's law. This pressure is transmitted equally in all directions and at right angles, and a change in pressure disperses equally throughout the fluid. Pascal's law is used by engineers when designing hydraulic systems that use liquid power to do work. Some examples are hydraulic jacks that lift cars up in repair shops and hydraulic brakes that apply a pressure to a large area to stop a large vehicle such as a train. Pascal's law is also used in water distribution systems and sewage systems to move water throughout a network of pipelines. Primarily, two different types of fluid flow exist—laminar and turbulent.

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    Laminar flow occurs when fluid particles move along a uniform, smooth path called a streamline and typically occurs in small pipes or other low-flow media. Turbulent flow occurs when fluid particles flow irregularly and cause a change in velocity and typically occurs in large pipes or other high-flow media. Bernoulli's principle states that pressure and velocity are inversely related, or that the pressure in a fluid decreases when the fluid's velocity increases, as seen in Equation 3. Bernoulli's equation remains equal at different points in a horizontal pipe. In a pipe that is not consistent in height, Bernoulli's equation still remains equal, but takes into account height differences at different points in a pipe, as noted by h in Equation 3.

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    Engineers implement Bernoulli's equation in order to specify optimal and efficient pipe sizes when designing pipelines and transport systems. Bernoulli's equation is a main component in aerodynamics, which is applied in the design of automobiles, bridges, ventilation systems, gas piping, aircraft and spacecraft. The concepts of Pascal's law, Archimedes' principle and Bernoulli's principle are important in engineering and technology applications such as aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, hydraulics, floating vessels, submersibles, airplanes, automobiles, aerospace guidance and control, pipelines and transport systems, as well as for many research topics such as ocean-related flows, turbulence, reacting flows, global climate, bio-fluid mechanics, flow over magnetic tapes and disks, geophysical flows, kinetics of combustion systems, vortex dynamics and many more.

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    Refer to A Shot Under Pressure activity to have students utilize their new understanding towards investigating a real world application, water guns! Aerodynamics is the study of the properties of moving air, which is a main component in the design of automobiles, bridges, heating and ventilation, gas piping, aircraft and spacecraft. Hydrodynamics is the study of forces exerted on or by fluids, which is the main component in naval architecture or ship design, and ocean engineering. Ocean and marine engineers are responsible study the offshore environment in order to design oil rigs and production platforms as well as floating vessels and subsea pipeline systems needed in the oil production process. Hydraulic engineers use hydraulics, or the use of liquid power to do work, to design heavy machinery, water distribution systems, sewage networks, storm water management systems, bridges, dams, channels, canals and levees. Various submersibles and remotely operated vehicles designed by engineers are widely used by government and scientific researchers and are essential in the discovery of deep-water communities and the exploration of the abysmal ocean because they can reach depths much greater than previous satellite and shipboard technologies.

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    Test Driven Development: what it is, and what it is not. Many programmers have tried this technique, failed, and concluded that TDD is not worth the effort it requires. Some programmers think that, in theory, it is a good practice, but that there is never enough time to really use TDD. And others think that it is basically a waste of time.

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    If you feel this way, I think you might not understand what TDD really is. OK, the previous sentence was to catch your attention. In this article I will go through the fundamentals of Test Driven Development, addressing common misconceptions about the TDD technique. Why use TDD? There are studies, papers, and discussions about how effective TDD is. Say that you are a web developer. You have just finished a small feature. Do you consider it enough to test this feature just by interacting manually with the browser? Unfortunately this means that part of the code is not good enough. But the consideration above is about testing, not TDD itself. So why TDD? Rules of the game Uncle Bob describes TDD with three rules: - You are not allowed to write any production code unless it is to make a failing unit test pass. I also like a shorter version, which I found here : - Write only enough of a unit test to fail. These rules are simple, but people approaching TDD often violate one or more of them.

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    I challenge you: can you write a small project following strictly these rules? By small project I mean something real, not just an example that requires like 50 lines of code. Those rules define the mechanics of TDD, but they are definitely not everything you need to know. Red Green Refactor cycle Red Green Refactor Red phase In the red phase, you have to write a test on a behavior that you are about to implement.

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    Yes, I wrote behavior. Why does the first rule of TDD require that you write a test before you write any piece of production code? Are we TDD people maniacs? Each phase of the R. You have to write a test that uses a piece of code as if it were already implemented. Forget about the implementation! If, in this phase, you are thinking about how you are going to write the production code, you are doing it wrong!

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    It is in this phase where you concentrate on writing a clean interface for future users. This is the phase where you design how your code will be used by clients. This first rule is the most important one and it is the rule that makes TDD different from regular testing. You write a test so that you can then write production code. You may think that is a magic number and is thus a bad practice. It is not. In test code, magic numbers are good, whereas in production code they should be avoided. That test actually has some implications: The name of the leap year calculator is LeapYear isLeap Do we need a method to tell if a year is a leap year, or do we need a method that returns a list of leap years between a start and end date?

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    Are the name of the elements meaningful? These are the kinds of questions you have to keep in mind while writing tests in the Red phase. In this phase, you have to make decisions about how the code will be used. You base this on what you really need at the moment and not on what you think may be needed. Concentrate on the feature you are implementing and on what is really needed. What about abstraction? Will see that later, in the refactor phase. Green phase This is usually the easiest phase, because in this phase you write production code. If you are a programmer, you do that all the time. Here comes another big mistake: instead of writing enough code to pass the red test, you write all the algorithms.

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    While doing this, you are probably thinking about what is the most performing implementation. No way! In this phase, you need to act like a programmer who has one simple task: write a straightforward solution that makes the test pass and makes the alarming red on the test report becomes a friendly green. In this phase, you are allowed to violate best practices and even duplicate code. Code duplication will be removed in the refactor phase. But why do we have this rule? For two reasons: A simple task is less prone to errors, and you want to minimize bugs. You can write code that is not under testing aka legacy , but the worst thing you can do is mixing up tested and untested code.

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    What about clean code? What about performance? What if writing code makes me discover a problem? What about doubts? Performance is a long story, and is out of the scope of this article. The test driven development technique provides two others things: a to-do list and the refactor phase. The refactor phase is used to clean up the code. The to-do list is used to write down the steps required to complete the feature you are implementing. It also contains doubts or problems you discover during the process. A possible to-do list for the leap year calculator could be: Feature: Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by , but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by And years before Julian calendar?

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    The to-do list is live: it changes while you are coding and, ideally, at the end of the feature implementation it will be blank. Refactor phase In the refactor phase, you are allowed to change the code, while keeping all tests green, so that it becomes better. But there is something mandatory: you have to remove code duplication. Kent Becks suggests in his book that removing code duplication is all you need to do. Removing code duplication often results in abstraction. Final considerations In this section I will try to answer to some common questions and misconceptions about Test Drive Development.

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    On the contrary, it helps keep a project as simple as possible and thus saves time. How many test do I have to write? The minimum amount that lets you write all the production code. The minimum amount, because every test slows down refactoring when you change production code, you have to fix all the failing tests. On the other hand, refactoring is much simpler and safer on code under tests. This cannot be more false. And this means that you will have to delete production and test code.

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    But you can avoid using TDD on some parts of a project. I also ensure that there is very a little logic inside views. You may able to to that, but is the same consideration valid for all your team members? They will eventually modify your code and break it. It would be nice if you wrote tests so that a bug can be spotted immediately and not in production. TDD works well on examples, but in a real application a lot of the code is not testable.

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    I wrote a whole Tetris as well as progressive web apps at work using TDD. If you test first, code is clearly testable. It is more a matter of understanding how to mock dependencies and how to write simple but effective tests. Tests should not be written by the developers who write the code, they should be written by others, possibly QA people. If you are speaking about testing your application, yes it is a good idea to ask other people to test what your team did. This article was about the philosophy and common misconceptions of TDD.

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    I am planning to write other articles on TDD where you will see a lot of code and fewer words. If you are interested on how to develop Tetris using TDD, stay tuned! If this article was helpful, tweet it. Learn to code for free. Get started freeCodeCamp is a donor-supported tax-exempt c 3 nonprofit organization United States Federal Tax Identification Number: Our mission: to help people learn to code for free. We accomplish this by creating thousands of videos, articles, and interactive coding lessons - all freely available to the public. We also have thousands of freeCodeCamp study groups around the world.

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    Let's learn the testing principles with the following video example- Click here if the video is not accessible Background It is important that you achieve optimum test results while conducting software testing without deviating from the goal. But how you determine that you are following the right strategy for testing? For that, you need to stick to some basic testing principles. Here are the common seven testing principles that are widely practiced in the software industry. To understand this, consider a scenario where you are moving a file from folder A to Folder B.

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    Think of all the possible ways you can test this. Apart from the usual scenarios, you can also test the following conditions Trying to move the file when it is Open You do not have the security rights to paste the file in Folder B Folder B is on a shared drive and storage capacity is full. We need certain principles and strategies to optimize the testing effort Here are the 7 Principles: 1 Exhaustive testing is not possible Yes!

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    Exhaustive testing is not possible. Instead, we need the optimal amount of testing based on the risk assessment of the application. And the million dollar question is, how do you determine this risk? To answer this let's do an exercise In your opinion, Which operation is most likely to cause your Operating system to fail? I am sure most of you would have guessed, Opening 10 different application all at the same time. So if you were testing this Operating system, you would realize that defects are likely to be found in multi-tasking activity and need to be tested thoroughly which brings us to our next principle Defect Clustering 2 Defect Clustering Defect Clustering which states that a small number of modules contain most of the defects detected. By experience, you can identify such risky modules. But this approach has its own problems If the same tests are repeated over and over again, eventually the same test cases will no longer find new bugs. The same applies to software testing.

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    If the same set of repetitive tests are conducted, the method will be useless for discovering new defects. Testers cannot simply depend on existing test techniques. He must look out continually to improve the existing methods to make testing more effective. Software Testing reduces the probability of undiscovered defects remaining in the software but even if no defects are found, it is not a proof of correctness. This can be the case if the system is tested thoroughly for the wrong requirement. Software testing is not mere finding defects, but also to check that software addresses the business needs. The absence of Error is a Fallacy i. So that any defects in the requirements or design phase are captured in early stages. It is much cheaper to fix a Defect in the early stages of testing.

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    But how early one should start testing? It is recommended that you start finding the bug the moment the requirements are defined. More on this principle in a later training tutorial. You might use a different approach, methodologies, techniques, and types of testing depending upon the application type. Myth: "Principles are just for reference.

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    I will not use them in practice. Test Principles will help you create an effective Test Strategy and draft error catching test cases. But learning testing principles is just like learning to drive for the first time. Initially, while you learn to drive, you pay attention to each and everything like gear shifts, speed, clutch handling, etc. But with experience, you just focus on driving the rest comes naturally. Such that you even hold conversations with other passengers in the car. Same is true for testing principles. Experienced testers have internalized these principles to a level that they apply them even without thinking. Hence the myth that the principles are not used in practice is simply not true.

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    PLTW classes are hands-on, based in real-world experience, and engaging for students and teachers. Our relationships with teachers, parents, local and national business leaders and university partners allow us to offer a complete experience both for students wishing to pursue a post-secondary degree in a STEM-related field and for those planning to join the workforce after high school. STEM literacy reduces dropout rates, increases attendance and helps students find better-paying jobs after school.

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    C 60 lbs D 70 lbs Answer: C — 60 lbs is needed to lift the weight. However, in mechanical aptitude questions, you may see questions where the fulcrum has been placed closer to the force than the weight. This will mean that a force greater than the weight will be required to lift it. You may see more complex questions involving levers. For example, there may be more than one weight. In this case, you need to work out the force required to lift each weight independently and then add them together to get the total force required. Pulleys The pulleys used in this type of question consist of a grooved wheel and a block that holds it. A rope runs in the groove around the wheel and one end will be attached to either: A weight A fixed object like the ceiling Another pulley For these questions, you can ignore the effect of friction.

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    Single Pulley Which weight requires the least force to move? Single pulley questions are relatively straightforward. If the pulley is fixed then the force required is equal to the weight. If the pulley moves with the weight then the force is equal to half of the weight. Another way of thinking about this is to divide the weight by the number of sections of rope supporting it, to obtain the force needed to lift it.

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